Research Base - University of Utah Reading Clinic - College of Education

Tier 1 Models

Tier 1 Text

Tier 1 Word Study

Writing About Tier 1 Text

Tier 2 Models

First & Early Steps℠

Next Steps℠

Higher Steps℠

Assessments

ERI, RLA, "Flash", TOSCRF

General Notes

A robust set of evidence-based studies undergirds UURC basic intervention models: Early Steps℠, Next Steps℠, and Higher Steps℠, as well as assessment instruments.

Study results include:

U Steps models
- Effect sizes between 0.5 and 1.2.
Early Steps℠
- At risk Grade 1 intervention students finished the school year averaging between G1-mid and G1-end reading level.
  - 95 sessions
- Non-intervention (control) Grade 1 students averaging G1-early reading level.
  - 135 standard Tier1 sessions.
Next Steps℠
- Intervention students finished the school year averaging a year's growth in reading level.
  - 45 sessions
- Non-intervention (control) students averaging half-year's growth in reading level.
  - 100 Tier1 sessions.
Small group
- no significant advantage for 1:1 over 1:3.

Educator Impact

Student Impact

Tier 1 Text Research Base

GENERAL RESEARCH BASE

Tier 1 Text Research: Peer-Reviewed Journals

Beck, I.L., McKeown, M.G., Sandora, C., Kucan, L., & Worthy, J. (1996). Questioning the Author: A Yearlong Classroom Implementation to Engage Students with Text. Elementary School Journal, 96 (4), 385-414. https://doi.org/10.1086/461835

Component of Tier 1 Text

Hillocks, G., Jr. (1987, May). Synthesis of Research on Teaching Writing. Educational Leadership, 44 (8), 71-82. http://www.ascd.org/ASCD/pdf/journals/ed_lead/el_198705_hillocks.pdf

Support for Tier 1 Text & Writing About Tier 1 Text

Kuhn, M.R. & Schwanenflugel, P.J. (2009). Time, Engagement, and Support: Lessons from a Four-Year Fluency Intervention. In E.H. Hiebert (ed.), Reading More, Reading Better 141-160. New York: Guilford. http://www.guilford.com/books/Reading-More-Reading-Better/Elfrieda-Hiebert/9781606232859/contents

[Annotated Copy]

Support for Tier 1 Text

Kuhn, M.R., Schwanenflugel, P.J., Morris, R.D., Morrow, L.M., Woo, D.G., Meisinger, E.B., Sevcik, R.A., Bradley, B.A., & Stahl, S.A. (2006). Teaching Children to Become Fluent and Automatic Readers. Journal of Literacy Research, 38 (4), 357-387. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15548430jlr3804_1

[Annotated Abstract]

Component of Tier 1 Text

Kuhn, M.R. & Woo, D.G. (2008). Fluency-Oriented Reading: Two Whole-Class Approaches. In M.R. Kuhn & Schwanenflugel (eds.), Fluency in the Classroom 17-35. New York: Guilford. https://books.google.com/books?id=Dp9zBjdFJp4C&pg=PA17

Support for Tier 1 Text

McKeown, M.G., Beck, I.L., & Blake, R.G. (2009). Rethinking reading comprehension instruction: A comparison of instruction for strategies and content approaches. Reading Research Quarterly, 44 (3), 218-255. https://doi.org/10.1598/rrq.44.3.1

Component of Tier 1 Text

Schwanenflugel, P.J., Kuhn, M.R., & Ash, G.E. (2010). Sharing the Stage: Using Oral and Silent Wide Reading to Develop Proficient Reading in the Early Grades. In E.H. Hiebert & D.R. Reutzel (eds.), Revisiting Silent Reading: New Directions for Teachers and Researchers 181-197. Santa Cruz: TextProject, Inc. http://textproject.org/assets/library/resources/Hiebert-Reutzel-2014-Revisiting-Silent-Reading.pdf#page=196

Support for Tier 1 Text

Shanahan, T. (2014). How and How Not to Prepare Students for the New Tests. The Reading Teacher, 68 (3), 184-188. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/trtr.1315/abstract

Support for Tier 1 Text

Shanahan, T. (2015, Apr. 23). Round Robin by Any Other Name... Oral Reading for Older Readers. https://shanahanonliteracy.com/blog/round-robin-by-any-other-name-oral-reading-for-older-readers

Support for Tier 1 Text

Shanahan, T. (2015, May 13). How Much Text Complexity Can Teachers Scaffold? https://shanahanonliteracy.com/blog/how-much-text-complexity-can-a-teacher-scaffold

Support for Tier 1 Text

Shanahan, T. (2016, Jan. 4). Kids Need to Read Within Instruction. https://shanahanonliteracy.com/blog/kids-need-to-read-within-instruction

Support for Tier 1 Text

Stahl, S.A. & Heubach, K, M. (2005). Fluency-oriented reading instruction. Journal of Literacy Research, 37 (1), 25-60. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15548430jlr3701_2

Component of Tier 1 Text

Williams, J.P., Kao, J.C., Pao, L.S., Ordynans, J.G., Atkins, J.G., Cheng, R., & DeBonis, D. (2016). Close analysis of texts with structure (CATS): An intervention to teach reading comprehension to at-risk second-graders. Journal of Educational Psychology, 198 (8), 1061-1077. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000117

Component of Tier 1 Text

Tier 1 Text Research: Peer-Reviewed Conferences

Kocherhans, S.N., & Opatz, M.O. (2022, November). Crossing the Boundaries of Reading Intervention: The Pursuit to Provide Equitable Reading Intervention with Middle Schoolers. Roundtable presented at the annual meeting of the Literacy Research Association, Phoenix.

Component of Tier 1 Text

Kocherhans, S.N., Opatz, M.O., & Hansen, S. (2024, December). Empowering Middle School Teachers and Students with a Comprehensive Tier 1 Reading Intervention. Roundtable presented at the annual meeting of the Literacy Research Association, Atlanta.

Component of Tier 1 Text

Kocherhans, S.N., Opatz, M.O., Hansen, S., Fields, M.K., & Patrick, K.C. (2025, February). Impact of Tier 2 Reading Intervention on Multilingual Learners. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Winter Text & Discourse (WT&D) Conference, Boulder, Colorado. [PDF format]

Component of Tier 1 Text

Patrick, K.C., Kocherhans, S.N., Fields, M.K., & Craig, G.T. (2025, July). Improving Reading Achievement of G3-12 Readers Through a Multicomponent Reading Intervention Incorporating Assisted Reading of Complex Text and Explicit Academic Vocabulary Instruction. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Reading, Calgary. [PDF format]

Component of Tier 1 Text

Tier 1 Text Research: Public Conferences

Brown, K. (2016, Aug.). Repeated Readings: What Can We Learn From Eye Movements?. Presented at the University of Utah Reading Clinic. [PowerPoint format] [PDF format]

Support for Tier 1 Text

Brown, K.J. (2013, September). Making Tier I Text accessible: For Improved Fluency & Comprehension. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Utah Council of the International Reading Association, Salt Lake City, UT. [PowerPoint format]
[Handout 1] [Handout 2]

Direct study of Tier 1 Text

Tier 1 Word Study Research Base

GENERAL RESEARCH BASE

Tier 1 Word Study Research: Peer-Reviewed Journals

Crosson, A.C., McKeown, M.G., Robbins, K.P., & Brown, K.J. (2020). Morphological analysis skill and academic vocabulary knowledge are malleable through intervention and may contribute to reading comprehension for multilingual adolescents. Journal of Research in Reading, 44 (1). https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9817.12323

Component of Tier 1 Word Study

Crosson, A.C., McKeown, M.G., Robbins, K.P., & Brown, K.J. (2019). Key elements of robust vocabulary instruction for emergent bilingual adolescents. Language, Speech, and Hearing in Schools, 50 (4), 493-505. https://doi.org/10.1044/2019_lshss-voia-18-0127

Component of Tier 1 Word Study

Tier 1 Word Study Research: Peer-Reviewed Conferences

Kocherhans, S.N., Opatz, M.O., Gale, M.C., & Patrick, K.C. (2025, February). Wordplay in the Classroom: Using Morphology to Strengthen Middle School Reading. Breakout session presented at the annual meeting of the Utah Council of Teachers of English (Northern Conference), Sandy, Utah.

Component of Tier 1 Word Study

Kocherhans, S.N., Opatz, M.O., Gale, M.C., & Patrick, K.C. (2025, March). Wordplay in the Classroom: Using Morphology to Strengthen Middle School Reading. Breakout session presented at the annual meeting of the Utah Council of Teachers of English (Southern Conference), Cedar City, Utah.

Component of Tier 1 Word Study

Tier 1 Word Study Research: Public Conferences

Writing About Tier 1 Text Research Base

GENERAL RESEARCH BASE

Writing About Tier 1 Text Research: Peer-Reviewed Journals

Hillocks, G., Jr. (1987, May). Synthesis of Research on Teaching Writing. Educational Leadership, 44 (8), 71-82. http://www.ascd.org/ASCD/pdf/journals/ed_lead/el_198705_hillocks.pdf

Support for Tier 1 Text & Writing About Tier 1 Text

Writing About Tier 1 Text Research: Peer-Reviewed Conferences

Writing About Tier 1 Text Research: Public Conferences

Robbins, K. (2016, Aug.). Writing About Tier I Text. Presented at the University of Utah Reading Clinic. [PowerPoint format] [PDF format]

Support for Writing About Tier 1 Text

First & Early Steps℠ Research Base

GENERAL RESEARCH BASE

First & Early Steps℠ Research: Peer-Reviewed Journals

Boyer, N. & Ehri, L.C. (2011). Contribution of phonemic segmentation instruction with letters and articulation pictures to word reading and spelling in beginners. Scientific Studies of Reading, 15 (5), 440-470. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2010.520778

Component of Early Steps℠ & Next Steps℠

Brown, K.J. (1999/2000). What kind of text for whom, and when? Textual scaffolding for beginning readers. The Reading Teacher, 53 (4), 292-307. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20204794

Component of Early Steps℠, Next Steps℠ & Higher Steps℠

Brown, K.J. (2003). What do I say when they get stuck on a word? Aligning prompts with students’ development during guided reading. The Reading Teacher, 56 (8), 720-733. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20205283

Component of Early Steps℠

Brown, K.J., Patrick, K.C., Fields, M.K., & Craig, G.T. (2021). Phonological awareness materials in Utah kindergartens: A case study in the science of reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 56 (51). https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.386

Component of Early Steps℠

Invernizzi, M., Rosemary, C., Juel, C., & Richards, H.C. (1997). At-risk readers and community volunteers: A 3-year perspective. Scientific Studies in Reading, 1 (3), 277-300. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532799xssr0103_6

Direct study of early version of Early Steps℠ (Book Buddies)
Notice effect size of .1.29

Mathes, P.G., Denton, C.A., Fletcher, J.M., Anthony, J.L., Francis, D.J., & Schatschneider, C. (2005). The effects of theoretically different instruction and student characteristics on the skills of struggling readers. Reading Research Quarterly, 40 (2), 148-182. https://doi.org/10.1598/rrq.40.2.2

Direct study of early version of Early Steps℠ (Responsive Reading)
Notice effect sizes ranging from .39-.60

Morris, D. (2006). Using noncertified tutors to work with at-risk readers: An evidence-based model. Elementary School Journal, 106 (4), 351-362. https://doi.org/10.1086/503636

Direct study of early version of Early Steps℠ & Next Steps℠ (Howard Street)
Notice effect sizes ranging from .30-1.12

Morris, D., Bloodgood, J.W., Lomax, R.G., & Perney, J. (2003). Developmental steps in learning to read: A longitudinal study in kindergarten and first grade. Reading Research Quarterly, 38 (3), 302-328. https://doi.org/10.1598/rrq.38.3.1

Direct study of early version of Early Steps℠ & Next Steps℠ (Howard Street)

Morris, D., Tyner, B., & Perney, J. (2000). Early Steps: Replicating the effects of a first-grade reading intervention program. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92 (4), 681-693. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.92.4.681

Direct study of Early Steps℠
Notice effect sizes ranging from .42-.94

Santa, C. & Høien, T. (1999). An assessment of Early Steps: A program for early intervention of reading problems. Reading Research Quarterly, 34 (1), 54-79. https://doi.org/10.1598/rrq.34.1.4

Direct study of early version of Early Steps℠
Notice effect sizes ranging from .50-.70; 1.0-1.8 for high-risk children [lowest pretest scores]

First & Early Steps℠ Research: Peer-Reviewed Conferences

Brown, K.J., Fields, M.K., & Craig, G.T. (2014, July). At-Risk Beginning Readers: Implications for Tier II Economies of Scale. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Reading, Santa Fe, NM. [PowerPoint format]

Direct study of Early Steps℠ (small group vs 1:1)

Brown, K.J., Fields, M.K., Lowe, S., Skidmore, D. Van Gorder, D., & Weinstein, C. (2001, June). The benefits of intervention for at-risk 1st graders: What happens in 2nd grade? Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Reading, Boulder, CO.

Direct study of Early Steps℠ and Next Steps℠

Brown, K.J., Reynolds, V., Lowe, S., Skidmore, D., Van Gorder, D., Patillo, S., Weinstein, C., World, J., & Morris, A. (2000, July). Early Steps intervention in schools with explicit code instruction: Is it effective? Does isolated phonological awareness instruction increase effectiveness? Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Reading, Stockholm, Sweden. [PowerPoint format]

Direct study of Early Steps℠

First & Early Steps℠ Research: Public Conferences

Brown, K.J. (2022, June). Reviewing Kindergarten Phonological Awareness Materials with Dr. Kathleen Brown. Teaching Literacy Podcast Episode 35. J. Downs, Interviewer. [Apple] [Spotify]

Support for Early Steps℠

Brown, K.J., Fields, M.K., Craig, G.T., & Robbins, K.P. (2018, July). Longitudinal replication of a Tier II intervention model for struggling readers across grades 1 - 12. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Reading, Brighton, UK. [PowerPoint format]

Direct study of Early Steps℠ and Next Steps℠ across 14 years of intervention.
Notice effect sizes ranging from .51-1.18

Fields, M., Brown, K.J., & Craig, G. (2013, August). Maintaining the Power of One-on-One in a Group of Four: Early Steps Quads. Paper presented at the annual trainer retreat of the University of Utah Reading Clinic, Murray, UT. [PowerPoint format]

Direct study of Early Steps℠ (small group vs 1:1)

Brown, K.J. (2012, September). Neutralizing Pendulum Swings: What Reading Teachers Can Do. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Utah Council of the International Reading Association, Ogden, UT. [PowerPoint format]

Support for Early Steps℠, Next Steps℠ & Higher Steps℠

Brown, K.J. (2007, March 2) Reading Words: The Instructional Road to Automaticity Presentation at the Utah Branch of the International Dyslexia Association in Salt Lake City, UT. [PowerPoint format]

Support for Early Steps℠, Next Steps℠ & Higher Steps℠

Brown, K.J. (2006, November). What kind of intervention for whom, and when?: Responses of English language learners to intervention. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Utah Council of the International Reading Association, Salt Lake City, UT. [PowerPoint format]

Direct study of Early Steps℠

Brown, K.J.(2006, March 2) What should I say when they get stuck on a word? Presentation at the Utah Branch of the International Dyslexia Association in Sandy, UT. [PowerPoint format]

Support for Early Steps℠ & Next Steps℠

Brown, K.J.(2004, June 7) Who are struggling readers and what do they need? [Outline]. Keynote Speech in Vernal, UT. [PowerPoint format]

Support for Early Steps℠ & Next Steps℠

Next Steps℠ Research Base

GENERAL RESEARCH BASE

Next Steps℠ Research: Peer-Reviewed Journals

Brown, K.J. (1999/2000). What kind of text for whom, and when? Textual scaffolding for beginning readers. The Reading Teacher, 53 (4), 292-307. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20204794

Component of Early Steps℠, Next Steps℠ & Higher Steps℠

Brown, K.J., Morris, D., & Fields, M.K. (2005). Intervention after grade one: Serving increased numbers of struggling readers effectively. Journal of Literacy Research, 37 (1), 61-94. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15548430jlr3701_3

Direct study of Next Steps℠
Notice effect sizes ranging from .51-1.18

Morris, D. (2006). Using noncertified tutors to work with at-risk readers: An evidence-based model. Elementary School Journal, 106 (4), 351-362. https://doi.org/10.1086/503636

Direct study of early version of Early Steps℠ & Next Steps℠ (Howard Street)
Notice effect sizes ranging from .30-1.12

Direct study of early version of Early Steps℠ & Next Steps℠ (Howard Street)

Morris, D., Shaw, B., & Perney, J. (1990). Helping low readers in grades 2 and 3: An after-school volunteer tutoring program. Elementary School Journal, 91 (2), 133-150. https://doi.org/10.1086/461642

Direct study of early version of Next Steps℠ (Howard Street)

Schwanenflugel, P.J., Meisinger, E.B., Wisenbaker, J.M., Kuhn, M.R., Strauss, G.P., & Morris, R.D. (2006). Becoming a fluent and automatic reader in the early elementary school years. Reading Research Quarterly, 41 (4), 496-522. https://doi.org/10.1598/rrq.41.4.4

Component of Next Steps℠ & Higher Steps℠

Next Steps℠ Research: Peer-Reviewed Conferences

Brown, K.J., Fields, M.K., Craig, G.T., & Morris, R.D. (2008, July). Maintaining the Power of One-on-One in a Group of Three: Next Steps Triads. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Reading, Asheville, NC. [PowerPoint format]

Direct study of Next Steps℠ (small group vs 1:1)

Direct study of Early Steps℠ and Next Steps℠ across 14 years of intervention.
Notice effect sizes ranging from .51-1.18

Brown, K.J., Fields, M.K., & Morris, R.D. (2006, December). Valid, Reliable & Efficient: A Psychometric Evaluation of "Flash" Word Recognition and "NSSI" Passage Reading Measures. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Reading Forum, Sanibel, FL. [PowerPoint format]

Direct study of Next Steps℠ and Flash assessment

Direct study of Early Steps℠ and Next Steps℠

Brown, K.J., Morris, R.D., Fields, M.K., Lowe, S., Skidmore, D. Van Gorder, D., Weinstein, C., Robertson, J., & Brock,U. (2003, June). The Virginia Intervention Model: Evaluating its effectiveness for struggling readers who speak English as a second language. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Reading, Boulder, CO. [PowerPoint format]

Direct study of Next Steps℠
Notice effect sizes ranging from .54-.81

Next Steps℠ Research: Public Conferences

Support for Early Steps℠, Next Steps℠ & Higher Steps℠

Brown, K.J.(2006, March 2) What should I say when they get stuck on a word? Presentation at the Utah Branch of the International Dyslexia Association in Sandy, UT. [PowerPoint format]

Support for Early Steps℠ & Next Steps℠

Brown, K.J.(2004, June 7) Who are struggling readers and what do they need? [Outline]. Keynote Speech in Vernal, UT. [PowerPoint format]

Support for Early Steps℠ & Next Steps℠

Higher Steps℠ Research Base

GENERAL RESEARCH BASE

Higher Steps℠ Research: Peer-Reviewed Journals

Brown, K.J. (1999/2000). What kind of text for whom, and when? Textual scaffolding for beginning readers. The Reading Teacher, 53 (4), 292-307. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20204794

Component of Early Steps℠, Next Steps℠ & Higher Steps℠

Opatz, M.O. & Kocherhans, S. (2023). Using a supplemental, multicomponent reading intervention to increase adolescent readers' achievement. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 67 (5), 294-302. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaal.1333

Direct study of Higher Steps℠
Notice effect sizes ranging from .59-1.37

Pyle, N., Vasquez, A., Lignugaris/Kraft, B., Gillam, S., Reutzel, D., Olszewski, A., Segura, H., Hartzheim, D. Laing, W., & Pyle, D. (2017). Effects of expository text structure interventions on comprehension: A meta-analysis. Reading Research Quarterly, 52 (4), 469-501. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.179

Component of Higher Steps℠

Component of Next Steps℠ & Higher Steps℠

Higher Steps℠ Research: Peer-Reviewed Conferences

Higher Steps℠ Research: Public Conferences

Support for Early Steps℠, Next Steps℠ & Higher Steps℠

Assessments Research Base

GENERAL RESEARCH BASE

Assessments Research: Peer-Reviewed Journals

Frye, E. & Gosky, R. (2012). Rapid word recognition as a measure of word-level automaticity and its relation to other measures of reading. Reading Psychology, 33 (4), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1080/02702711.2010.521670

Support for "Flash" Assessment

Morris, D., Bloodgood, J., Perney, J., Frye, E.M., Kucan, L., Trathen, W., Ward, D., & Schlagal, R. (2011). Validating craft knowledge: An empirical examination of elementary-grade students’ performance on an informal reading assessment. Elementary School Journal, 112 (2), 205-233. https://doi.org/10.1086/661522