UURC Research - Empirical Studies

In terms of actual empirical evidence, a robust set of studies undergirds UURC basic intervention models: Early Steps^SM, Next Steps^SM, and Higher Steps^SM, as well as assessment instruments. Studies were conducted with at-risk and struggling readers from Title I schools in diverse settings and have been published in rigorous, peer-reviewed research journals (see references below).

All studies were scientific quasi-experiments, and as such, evaluated the effectiveness of the intervention program under study through comparison to a matched control group. Student reading achievement was evaluated before intervention commenced and at its conclusion nine months later. Measures included norm and criterion referenced standardized instruments (i.e., Woodcock Reading Mastery: Word Attack and Passage Comprehension, 1987; UURC Reading Level Assessment, UURC Word Recognition Automaticity, and UURC Developmental Spelling).

To summarize across studies, at-risk first graders who received 95 sessions of Early Steps^SM finished the school year averaging between primer and end-of-grade 1 reading level, while their control peers finished on pre-primer after receiving 135 sessions of standard Title I intervention. Struggling readers who received Next Steps^SM intervention achieved a year's growth in reading ability in an average of 45 intervention sessions. Their control peers - who received standard Title I intervention - achieved one-half year's growth in over 100 sessions. In an investigation of the impact of group size on student performance, results indicated that there was not a significant advantage for 1-to1 over 1:3. This finding has paved the way for UURC professional development in small group intervention.

Empirical Evidence Supporting UURC Intervention Models: Peer-Reviewed Journals
(* indicates direct testing of model, model components, or assessments)

* Beck, I.L., McKeown, M.G., Sandora, C., Kucan, L., & Worthy, J. (1996). Questioning the Author: A Yearlong Classroom Implementation to Engage Students with Text. Elementary School Journal, 96 (4), 385-414. https://doi.org/10.1086/461835.

* Boyer, N. & Ehri, L.C. (2011). Contribution of phonemic segmentation instruction with letters and articulation pictures to word reading and spelling in beginners. Scientific Studies of Reading, 15 (5), 440-470. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2010.520778.

Brown, K.J. (1999/2000). What kind of text for whom, and when? Textual scaffolding for beginning readers. The Reading Teacher, 53 (4), 292-307.

Brown, K.J. (2003). What do I say when they get stuck on a word? Aligning prompts with students’ development during guided reading. The Reading Teacher, 56 (8), 720-733.

* Brown, K.J., Morris, D., & Fields, M.K. (2005). Intervention after grade one: Serving increased numbers of struggling readers effectively.Journal of Literacy Research, 37 (1), 61-94. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15548430jlr3701_3.

Brown, K.J., Patrick, K.C., Fields, M.K., & Craig, G.T. (2021). Phonological awareness materials in Utah kindergartens: A case study in the science of reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 56 (51), https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.386.

* Crosson, A.C., McKeown, M.G., Robbins, K.P., & Brown, K.J. (2020). Morphological analysis skill and academic vocabulary knowledge are malleable through intervention and may contribute to reading comprehension for multilingual adolescents. Journal of Research in Reading, 44 (1), https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9817.12323.

* Crosson, A.C., McKeown, M.G., Robbins, K.P., & Brown, K.J. (2019). Key elements of robust vocabulary instruction for emergent bilingual adolescents. Language, Speech, and Hearing in Schools, 50 (4), 493-505. https://doi.org/10.1044/2019_LSHSS-VOIA-18-0127.

* Frye, E. & Gosky, R. (2012). Rapid word recognition as a measure of word-level automaticity and its relation to other measures of reading. Reading Psychology, 33 (4), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1080/02702711.2010.521670.

* Invernizzi, M., Rosemary, C., Juel, C., & Richards, H.C. (1997). At-risk readers and community volunteers: A 3-year perspective. Scientific Studies in Reading, 1 (3), 277-300. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532799xssr0103_6.

* Kuhn, M.R., Schwanenflugel, P.J., Morris, R.D., Morrow, L.M., Woo, D.G., Meisinger, E.B., Sevcik, R.A., Bradley, B.A., & Stahl, S.A. (2006). Teaching Children to Become Fluent and Automatic Readers. Journal of Literacy Research, 38 (4), 357-387. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15548430jlr3804_1.
[Annotated Abstract]

* Mathes, P.G., Denton, C.A., Fletcher, J.M., Anthony, J.L., Francis, D.J., & Schatschneider, C. (2005). The effects of theoretically different instruction and student characteristics on the skills of struggling readers. Reading Research Quarterly, 40 (2), 148-182. https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.40.2.2.

* McKeown, M.G., Beck, I.L., & Blake, R.G. (2009). Rethinking reading comprehension instruction: A comparison of instruction for strategies and content approaches. Reading Research Quarterly, 44 (3), 218-255. https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.44.3.1.

* Morris, D. (2006). Using noncertified tutors to work with at-risk readers: An evidence-based model. Elementary School Journal, 106 (4), 351-362. https://doi.org/10.1086/503636.

* Morris, D., Bloodgood, J.W., Lomax, R.G., & Perney, J. (2003). Developmental steps in learning to read: A longitudinal study in kindergarten and first grade. Reading Research Quarterly, 38 (3), 302-328. https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.38.3.1.

* Morris, D., Bloodgood, J., Perney, J., Frye, E.M., Kucan, L., Trathen, W., Ward, D., & Schlagal, R. (2011). Validating craft knowledge: An empirical examination of elementary-grade students’ performance on an informal reading assessment. Elementary School Journal, 112 (2), 205-233. https://doi.org/10.1086/661522.

* Morris, D., Pennell, A.M., Perney, J., & Trathen, W. (2018). Using subjective and objective measures to predict level of fluency at the end of first grade. Reading Psychology, 39 (3), 253-270. https://doi.org/10.1080/02702711.2017.1418466.

* Morris, D., Shaw, B., & Perney, J. (1990). Helping low readers in grades 2 and 3: An after-school volunteer tutoring program. Elementary School Journal, 91 (2), 133-150. https://doi.org/10.1086/461642.

* Morris, D., Trathen, W., Gill, T., Perney, J., Schlagal, R., Ward, D., & Frye, E.M. (2019). Reading instructional level from a print-processing perspective. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 35 (6), 556-571. https://doi.org/10.1080/10573569.2019.1598311.

* Morris, D., Trathen, W., Gill, T., Schlagal, R., Ward, D., & Frye, E.M. (2017). Assessing reading rate in the primary grades (1-3). Reading Psychology, 38 (7), 653-672. https://doi.org/10.1080/02702711.2017.1323057.

Morris, D., Trathen, W., Lomax, R. G., Perney, J., Kucan, L., Frye, E., Bloodgood, J., Ward, D., & Schlagal, R. (2012). Modeling aspects of print-processing skill: Implications for reading assessment. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 25, 189-215. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-010-9253-z.

Morris, D., Trathen, W., Perney, J., Gill, T., Schlagal, R., Ward, D., & Frye, E.M. (2017). Three DIBELS tasks vs. three informal reading/spelling tasks: A comparison of predictive validity. Reading Psychology, 38 (3), 289-320. https://doi.org/10.1080/02702711.2016.1263700.

* Morris, D., Tyner, B., & Perney, J. (2000). Early Steps: Replicating the effects of a first-grade reading intervention program. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92 (4), 681-693. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.92.4.681.

* Opatz, M.O. & Kocherhans, S. (2023). Using a supplemental, multicomponent reading intervention to increase adolescent readers' achievement. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 67 (5), 294-302. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaal.1333.

* Pyle, N., Vasquez, A., Lignugaris/Kraft, B., Gillam, S., Reutzel, D., Olszewski, A., Segura, H., Hartzheim, D. Laing, W., & Pyle, D. (2017). Effects of expository text structure interventions on comprehension: A meta-analysis. Reading Research Quarterly, 52 (4), 469-501. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.179.

* Santa, C. & Høien, T. (1999). An assessment of Early Steps: A program for early intervention of reading problems. Reading Research Quarterly, 34 (1), 54-79. https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.34.1.4.

* Schwanenflugel, P.J., Meisinger, E.B., Wisenbaker, J.M., Kuhn, M.R., Strauss, G.P., & Morris, R.D. (2006). Becoming a fluent and automatic reader in the early elementary school years. Reading Research Quarterly, 41 (4), 496-522. https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.41.4.4.

* Stahl, S.A. & Heubach, K, M. (2005). Fluency-oriented reading instruction.Journal of Literacy Research, 37 (1), 25-60. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15548430jlr3701_2.

* Williams, J.P., Kao, J.C., Pao, L.S., Ordynans, J.G., Atkins, J.G., Cheng, R., & DeBonis, D. (2016). Close analysis of texts with structure (CATS): An intervention to teach reading comprehension to at-risk second-graders. Journal of Educational Psychology, 198 (8), 1061-1077. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000117.

Empirical Evidence Supporting UURC Intervention Models: Peer-Reviewed Conferences
(* indicates direct testing of model, model components, or assessments)

* Allen, E.A. & Rogers, L. (2008, November). Measuring reading comprehension in groups: A test of the Test of Silent Contextual Reading Fluency. Paper presented at the International Dyslexia Association Annual Convention, Seattle, WA.

* Brown, K.J., Fields, M.K., & Craig, G.T. (2014, July). At-Risk Beginning Readers: Implications for Tier II Economies of Scale. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Reading, Santa Fe, NM. [In PowerPoint format.]

* Brown, K.J., Fields, M.K., Craig, G.T., & Morris, R.D. (2008, July). Maintaining the Power of One-on-One in a Group of Three: Next Steps Triads. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Reading, Asheville, NC. [Also in PowerPoint format.]

* Brown, K.J., Fields, M.K., Craig, G.T., & Robbins, K.P. (2018, July). Longitudinal replication of a Tier II intervention model for struggling readers across grades 1 - 12. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Reading, Brighton, UK.

* Brown, K.J., Fields, M.K., & Morris, R.D. (2006, December). Valid, Reliable & Efficient: A Psychometric Evaluation of "Flash" Word Recognition and "NSSI" Passage Reading Measures. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Reading Forum, Sanibel, FL. [Also in PowerPoint format.]

* Brown, K.J., Fields, M.K., Lowe, S., Skidmore, D. Van Gorder, D., & Weinstein, C. (2001, June). The benefits of intervention for at-risk 1st graders: What happens in 2nd grade? Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Reading, Boulder, CO.

Brown, K.J., Morris, R.D., Fields, M.K., Lowe, S., Skidmore, D. Van Gorder, D., Weinstein, C., Robertson, J., & Brock,U. (2003, June). The Virginia Intervention Model: Evaluating its effectiveness for struggling readers who speak English as a second language. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Reading, Boulder, CO. [PowerPoint format.]

* Brown, K.J., Reynolds, V., Lowe, S., Skidmore, D., Van Gorder, D., Patillo, S., Weinstein, C., World, J., & Morris, A. (2000, July). Early Steps intervention in schools with explicit code instruction: Is it effective? Does isolated phonological awareness instruction increase effectiveness? Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Reading, Stockholm, Sweden. [Also in PowerPoint format.]

* Craig, G.T., Brown, K.J., Fields, M.K., & Morris, R.D. (2009, July). Reliability and Validity of the Reading Level Assessment and the "Flash" Word Recognition Automaticity Measure Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Reading, Berlin. [Also in PowerPoint format.]

Frye, B., Trathen, W., Olson, G., & Schalgal, R. (2002, December). Reliability measuring students' independent and instructional reading levels: A case for automaticity of word recognition (WRI word flash). Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Reading Forum.

Palmer, L., Trathen, W., Olson, G., & Schlagal, R. (2002, December). Measuring students' independent reading levels: Psychometric properties of developmental spelling tests and informal reading inventories. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Reading Forum, Sanibel, FL.

* Patrick, K.C., Kocherhans, S.N., Fields, M.K., & Craig, G.T. (2024, July). Improving Reading Achievement of Secondary Students Reading Below Grade Level With a Comprehensive Tier-1 Reading Intervention Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Reading, Copenhagen.

Presentations at Public Conferences

Brown, K.J. (2022, June). Reviewing Kindergarten Phonological Awareness Materials with Dr. Kathleen Brown. Teaching Literacy Podcast Episode 35. J. Downs, Interviewer. [Apple] [Spotify]

Brown, K.J. (2013, September). Making Tier I Text accessible: For Improved Fluency & Comprehension. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Utah Council of the International Reading Association, Salt Lake City, UT. [PowerPoint format.]
[Handout 1] [Handout 2]

Fields, M., Brown, K.J., & Craig, G. (2013, August). Maintaining the Power of One-on-One in a Group of Four: Early Steps Quads. Paper presented at the annual trainer retreat of the University of Utah Reading Clinic, Murray, UT. [PowerPoint format.]

Brown, K.J. (2012, September). Neutralizing Pendulum Swings: What Reading Teachers Can Do. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Utah Council of the International Reading Association, Ogden, UT. [PowerPoint format.]

Brown, K.J.(2007, March 2) Reading Words: The Instructional Road to Automaticity Presentation at the Utah Branch of the International Dyslexia Association in Salt Lake City, UT. [Also in PowerPoint format.]

Brown, K.J. (2006, November). What kind of intervention for whom, and when?: Responses of Engligh language learners to intervention. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Utah Council of the International Reading Association, Salt Lake City, UT. [Also in PowerPoint format.]

Brown, K.J.(2006, March 2) What should I say when they get stuck on a word? Presentation at the Utah Branch of the International Dyslexia Association in Sandy, UT. [Also in PowerPoint format.]

Brown, K.J.(2004, June 7) Who are struggling readers and what do they need? [Outline]. Keynoyte Speech in Vernal, UT. [Also as full PowerPoint.]